“Carnival continues to thrive because it is capable of change”

Minutes: Ulrike Scheffer

Jeremy DeWaal: German cultural history is one of the areas I focus on in my research. I’m particularly interested in concepts of tradition and the history of emotions. In this context I also study the Rhineland Carnival. In the form it takes today, with its lavish shows and big parades with themed floats, it has been around since the 19th century. The middle classes became more predominant during this ­period, with the result that the carnival became ­better organised.

Pascal Hein: Yet the carnival originally dates back to the Middle Ages, as does the Swabian-Alemannic Carnival that is the subject of my research. I collect literary records of the “Kneipenfastnacht” – when people celebrate the carnival in restaurants and pubs – and digitise them for research purposes. The carnival has its origins in the Christian calendar. Shortly before Lent, people would really let their hair down, gorging themselves on food, drinking lots of alcohol and celebrating exuberantly. This ­period was also characterised early on by sexual debauchery.

DeWaal: That was significantly more excessive than the carnival we know today. The mediaeval carnival is linked to dramatic symbolism relating to sin. ­People would often laugh at and positively gloat over the misfortune of others. Little importance was attached to empathy during carnival celebrations in those days. This changed in the modern era: since the nineteenth century, the motto of the Rhineland Carnival has been “Wellbeing for all and nobody hurt”. The carnival was increasingly seen as a healthy source of joy and togetherness.

Hein: The carnival in the southwest developed in much the same way. Unbridled gluttony gave way to the meticulously planned carnival hall events we see today, featuring celebrity speakers on stage, fanfares and uniforms. At the same time, the traditional Swabian-Alemannic street carnival with its fully masked characters experienced a ­revival.

DeWaal: People in the Rhineland adhered to mediaeval forms to a significantly lesser extent, though these haven’t disappeared completely. While there are still fools, “ships of fools”, the number 11 (known as the fool’s number) and other symbolic ­elements, what they symbolise has changed.

Hein: Most people nowadays don’t even know how the carnival was celebrated 100 or 200 years ago. In the southwest, a deliberate nod to history only became important after the First World War when the French and German authorities only permitted carnival celebrations to take place if “customs of historical value” were being practised. It was only then that the carnival associations began emphasising their history. This was also reflected in their names, with associations suddenly calling themselves “Historical Fools’ Guild”.

DeWaal: Labelling the carnival as cultural heritage is in any case a modern way of viewing it – not only in Germany but also elsewhere in Europe, as well as in North and South America. The Rhineland Carnival is a very good illustration of this. Cologne’s desire to assert its cultural significance as a major Rhineland city played a key role in its decision to launch the new Rhineland Carnival in the 1820s. Shortly after the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, when Cologne also lost its status as a free imperial city, its carnival was given a very locally patriotic feel to highlight the city’s importance. The carnival in its many forms has always been political, however – it’s just that its political aspects were far more complex than one often imagines. Depending on the context, it could either challenge or indeed consolidate hierarchies.

Hein: Class identities are also something we see from a very early stage. For example, the guilds played a central role, while the influence of the peasants was later eclipsed by that of the middle classes – with the customs that were practised evolving accordingly.

DeWaal: The carnival continues to thrive because it is capable of change. Colonisation led to the carnival being established on other continents, too. New forms emerged there as a result of new cultural elem­ents that in some cases then also influenced the European carnival. Portugal for instance has adopted many aspects of the Brazilian carnival. The way the carnival and its significance are viewed has changed radically over the centuries. That’s why I’m not certain it makes sense to list the carnival as ­UNESCO Cultural Heritage. If it is preserved like a fossil, this could threaten its very existence and ­continued evolution.

Hein: So long as lively interaction continues to characterise carnival practices I don’t see this as too great a threat. It would be rather different if the festivities were to become mere performances, as is the case in Venice – where a director has even been engaged. This has turned the carnival into a production for tourists that has little to do with traditional customs any more.

DeWaal: The community element of the carnival has always been an inherent part of its tradition. Its proponents would stress this community-building aspect even during the Reformation. In areas where the carnival was banned after the Reformation, ­people deliberately searched for alternative ways of creating a sense of community in order to promote social cohesion.

Hein: It can still perform this function today – ­providing that as wide a section of the population as possible is involved in designing and organising the festivities. This is also the most effective way of preventing attacks or violence during carnival events. Carnival associations and clubs should visit schools and explain to people who perhaps haven’t grown up with these traditions how the carnival works and how they can take part. If this happens, we will be able to enjoy the carnival for many years to come. —

Dr Jeremy DeWaal is a senior lecturer in European history at the University of Exeter in the UK. He was awarded a DAAD scholarship to conduct research in history at the University of Cologne and visits the city regularly at carnival time.

Pascal Hein is a research associate at the Digital Humanities department at University of Stuttgart’s Institute of Literary Studies. In his free time, he is active in several carnival associations.